Charles V

Charles V

By Richard Cavendish
Published in History Today Volume 56 Issue 1 January 2006

In theory, Charles V was the most powerful monarch in Europe. A Habsburg, in his teens in 1516 he inherited Spain, which had been united by his grandparents Ferdinand and Isabella. In 1519 he succeded his paternal grandfather Maximilian I as Holy Roman Emperor.

He was Duke of Burgundy and Archduke of Austria and he also ruled the Netherlands, Bohemia, Hungary, Naples, Sicily and Sardinia. Ruling Spain meant ruling Spanish America and in Charles’s time Cortés took Mexico and Pizarro conquered Peru. The wealth of Spain paid for his efforts to control western Europe.

A fervent Roman Catholic, Charles hoped to unite all Europe in a Christian empire. Not only did the French and the English prove resistant to the idea, however, but in 1517 Martin Luther nailed his theses to the church door at Wittenberg: Charles’s ambitions foundered on the Protestant Reformation.

The Emperor’s health began to fail in his mid-forties and he suffered agonies from gout. He had been considering abdication long before it became clear, in the 1550s, that Protestantism in Germany would have to be tolerated. It was not something he could accept. He handed the running of the Holy Roman Empire over to his brother Ferdinand in 1554, and in October 1555, in the Hall of the Golden Fleece in Brussels, he resigned the sovereignty of the Netherlands to his son Philip of Spain, asking those present to forgive him if, from the love he bore them, he shed some tears. Some of those who heard him shed them too. The following January he resigned Spain and Spanish America to Philip. In August he formally abdicated as Holy Roman Emperor.

Charles hoped that Philip would eventually rule his whole empire, but the empire was too big to manage, Ferdinand and his son Maxmilian refused to accept Philip’s succession and the Habsburg dynasty split into Austrian and Spanish branches. Charles himself spent his last days in Spain in a house close to a monastery, with a household some fifty strong. Visitors kept him in touch with events and he did his best to ensure the continued persecution of Protestants. He had taken his favourite books and pictures with him and he enjoyed shooting pigeons and tending his garden until his death in 1558.

Diogo Ribeiro

Diogo Ribeiro, a Portuguese cartographer working for Spain, made what is considered the first scientific world map: the 1527 Padrón real, the first world map based on empiric latitude observations. There are 6 copies attributed to Ribeiro, including at the Weimar Grand Ducal Library (1527 Mundus Novus) and at the Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, in Vatican City (1529 Propoganda Map or Carta Universal). The layout of the map (Mapamundi) is strongly influenced by the information obtained during the Magellan-Elcano trip around the world. Diogo’s map delineates very precisely the coasts of Central and South America. However, neitherAustralia nor Antarctica appear, and the Indian subcontinent is too small. The map shows, for the first time, the real extension of the Pacific Ocean. It also shows, for the first time, the North American coast as a continuous one (probably influenced by the Esteban Gómez’s exploration in 1525). It also shows the demarcation of the Treaty of Tordesillas.

Henry Hudson

From History.com

Henry Hudson made his first voyage west from England in 1607, when he was hired to find a shorter route to Asia from Europe through the Arctic Ocean. After twice being turned back by ice, Hudson embarked on a third voyage–this time on behalf of the Dutch East India Company in 1609. This time, he chose to continue east by a more southern route, drawn by reports of a possible channel across the North American continent to the Pacific. After navigating the Atlantic coast, Hudson’s ships sailed up a great river (which would later bear his name) but turned back when they determined it was not the channel they sought. On a fourth and final voyage, undertaken for England in 1610-11, Hudson spent months drifting through the vast Hudson Bay and eventually fell victim to a mutiny by his crew. Hudson’s discoveries laid the groundwork for Dutch colonization of the Hudson River region, as well as English land claims in Canada.

 

Lenape

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Leni Lenape or Lenape (/ləˈnɑːpɛ/), or in older references, the Delaware people (or nation) are a Native American tribe and in Canada, a recognized First Nations band government. They are also called Delaware Indians and their historical territory included present day New Jersey and eastern Pennsylvania along the Delaware River watershed, western Long Island, and the Lower Hudson Valley. During the Beaver Wars in the first half of the

Benjamin West's painting (in 1771) of William Penn's 1682 treaty with the Lenape. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

1600s, European colonists were careful to keep firearms from the coastally located Delaware, while rival Iroquoian peoples such as the Susquehannocks and Confederation of the Iroquois became comparatively well armed. Subsequently, the Lenape became subjugated and made tributary to first the Susquehannocks, then the Iroquois, even needing their rivals (superiors) agreement to initiate treaties such as land sales. Like most tribes, Lenape communities were weakened by newly introduced diseases originating in Europe, mainly smallpox but also cholera, influenza and dysentery, and recurrent violent racial conflict with Europeans. Iroquoian peoples occasionally fought the Lenape. As the 1700s progressed, many surviving Lenape moved west —into the (relatively empty) upper Ohio River basin.

During the decades of the 18th century most Lenape were pushed out of their homeland by expanding European colonies, exacerbated by losses from intertribal conflicts. The divisions and troubles of the American Revolutionary War and United States' independence pushed them farther west. In the 1860s, the United States government sent most Lenape remaining in the eastern United States to the Indian Territory (present-day Oklahoma and surrounding territory) under the Indian removal policy. In the 21st century, most Lenape now reside in the US state of Oklahoma, with some communities living also in Wisconsin, Ontario (Canada) and in their traditional homelands.

Lapowinsa, Chief of the Lenape, Lappawinsoe painted by Gustavus Hesselius in 1735. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Lenape kinship system has matrilineal clans, that is, children belong to their mother's clan, from which they gain social status and identity. The mother's eldest brother was more significant as a mentor to the male children than was their father, who was generally of another clan. Hereditary leadership passed through the maternal line, and women elders could remove leaders of whom they disapproved. Agricultural land was managed by women and allotted according to the subsistence needs of their extended families. Families were matrilocal; newlywed couples would live with the bride's family, where her mother and sisters could also assist her with her growing family.

Lenapehoking, the original Lenape territory. Munsee speakers in the north, Unami-speakers in the center, and Unalichtigo-speakers in the south. West/left side geographic limits correspond closely to ridgelines (drainage divides) between the Susquehanna and Delaware river valleys. From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

 

 

Richard Hartshorne

© January 2005
Compiled by Teresa Martin Klaiber
22937 Long Branch Road, Rush, KY 41168

Richard Hartshorne, was born 1641 in, Hathearne, a small town about four miles from Loughborough in Leicestershire, England. He was the son of William Hartshorne. Richard was baptized in St. Peters Parish, Leicestershire on 24 Octoer 1641.

Richard came to America as early as 1669 and married Margaret Carr 27 April 1670 in Rhode Island. Upon an agreement from his father-in-law he received a partially fenced piece of land. He requested John Hawes to finish the house, make a chimney, a cellar and add a window. The Hartshorne's took possession of the property a month after their marriage. It was here, as a member of the Society of Friends, that he most likely played host to George Fox. Fox later wrote in his journal of the visit.

By 1674 they had left Rhode Island and had purchased land from Lenape chief Tucus and Vowavapon at Navisink/Navesink meaning "good fishing" by the Lenape Indians. The British referred to it as Highlands, "Portland" because of the similarity to Portland, England with a bay protected by a peninsula. Richard named the place "Portland Poynt" where he held vast land holdings along the river and bay.

Richard wrote to a friend in England in 1675 that he lived very well and had between 30 and 40 head of cows and 7 or 8 horses. He was living in Middletown, New Jersey and spoke of purchasing fish from the Indians. Our ancestor, Mary was born at Portland Poynt the 14^th August 1676.

In 1677 he purchased a fishery at Sandy Hook from the East Jersey Proprietors. Besides his land purchases in Middletown he also purchased several tracts from the East Jersey Proprietors on the Manasquan River in 1685.

He held the office of town clerk of Middletown, was a Justice and a member of the Provincial Assembly and later speaker. In 1683 he declined the office of High Sheriff.

In 1698 at a public town meeting Richard was chosen a deputy along with Benjamin Borden. They were to receive six pounds to bare their charges at assembly. At the same meeting it was agreed that the assembly should raise money for the defense and maintenance of the province.

Richard was a religious as well as industrious person. In 1704 he made a record of his marriage and the dates of birth of his children. He wrote instructions to his children on serving God, caring for their mother and the necessity of government while on earth. He set aside, in his will a place on the property he loved as a burial ground. His will was written on May 14, 1722 where he designated a legacy for the poor of Shrewsbury Monthly Meeting. The will was proven on 22 May 1722.

Children of Richard Hartshorne and Margaret Carr are:

1. Robert Hartshorne, born 05 December 1671.
2. Hugh Hartshorne, born 15 May 1673; died Bet. 1673 - 1685.
3. Thomas Hartshorne, born 14 October 1674.
4. Mary Hartshorne, born 14 August 1676 in Monmouth County, New Jersey; married Zebulon Clayton.
5. William Hartshorne, born 22 January 1677/78; died February 1747/48; married Catherine Bowne.
6. Richard Hartshorne, born 17 February 1680/81.
7. Katherine Hartshorne, born 02 March 1681/82; died 1759; married Edward FitzRandolph.
8. Hugh Hartshorne, born 21 June 1685; married Catherine --?--.
9. Sarah Hartshorne, born 03 July 1687; married Taylor.
10. Richard Hartshorne, born 15 December 1689.
11. Mercy Hartshorne, born 12 May 1693; married Lawrence Co.

 

Captain Joshua Huddy History

Taken from "THIS OLD MONMOUTH OF OURS."
By William Horner
Originally published by
Moreau Brothers of Freehold, NJ 1932
Reprinted in 1974

Execution of Captain Huddy for Death of Philip White

Virtually the war had long been over, although the definitive treaty of peace was not formally signed until September 3, 1783. Yet, non the less, did Monmouth county Tories and Refugees, in sheer vindictiveness of revenge, continue in their course of spoilation, destruction, and murder to the bitter end. The burning ot Toms-River was the last of their exploits having even the semblance of military character, but sporadic crimes long continued to be committed. Cases in point are the killing of Davenport, pursued with hue and cry, by exasperated patriots, and the butchery of sleeping Americans by Bacon, told on page 80 of this volume.

The Asgill Affair
Two tragic incidents, factitiously related to the Toms-River raid, remain to be told. Before taking these up, however, it may be well to glance briefly at a later happening, a sequel to the hanging of Huddy, which bade fair to be the most dramatic of all the kaleidoscopic indicents of the whole war.

The wanton hanging of Huddy had caused a veritable furor in Monmouth, the whole county fairly "frothed at the mouth." An official investigation was at once set of foot. The findings of this body were immediately forward to Governor Livingston, to the Congress, and to Washington.

Lippencott's Surrender Demanded
Washington forthwith demanded from the British the surrender of Lippencott, or it that officer "was acting under instructions from a superior, the surrender of that superior."

see Letter from Washington regarding Huddy murder
Sir Henry Clinton, the British Commander-in chief, while admitting that the hanging of Huddy was a "barbarous outrage against humanity," refused to surrender Lippincott.

Sir Henry did, however, cause him to be tried by court-martial. The accused office pleaded that he had orders from the Board of Associated Loyalists, a body that had no authority to give such orders.

Lippencott Acquitted
The trial-court acquitted Lippencott, holding that, while Huddy was executed without proper authority, Lippencott was only obeying orders. So, the malefactor went scot-free.

Reprisal Determined On
Washington now called together a council made up of twenty-five general and field officers, to determine upon the course to be pursued. This Council decided to select by lot, from among fourteen British prisoners-of-war, of rank equal to Huddy, held in various states, one who should be hanged in reprisal. All this was in strict accordance with the Laws and Usages of War.

Asgill Designated
The finger of fate pointed out Lieutenant Charles Asgill as the victim, under the law of old dispensation "an eye for an eye, a tooth for a tooth." He was a young man of twenty, brave, amiable, generous popular. His parents were wealthy, his father a British Baronet.

Mother Fights for Son's Life
Lady Teresa Asgill threw herself, body, heart, and soul, into an almost superhuman determination to save her son from death. Her pleas for aid were heard in almost every court in Europe. The universal human heart was moved. The English King issued instructions that Lippencott must be surrendered, a now impossible thing, properly disregarded. Both the King and Queen of France pled for mercy. Holland proffered friendly counsels of clemency. Washington and his officers sickened at the thought of the revolting duty ahead of them.

Pity Paramount
The entreaties of the French King, our steadfast ally, at length prevailed. Asgill was spared-to succeed to his father's Baronetcy, to become a British general, to a long, a happy, and a useful life. Recognition of the mercy so shown was evidenced in certain favorable concessions contained in the Treaty of Paris.

The entire civilized world had been interested in the case of young Asgill, and the whole civilized world applauded the clemency meted out.

Yet, it may well be doubted whether, in the long run, the sterner course would not have been more truly in the interest of justive and humanity.

The Slaying of Philip White
Less than a week after the capture and icarceration of Captain Joshuah Huddy, Philip White, a malignant Tory, met his death at the hands of a party of our soldiery from whose custody he was endeavoring to escape into the swampy land bordering Yellow Brook on the north of the road leading from Colts-Neck to Freehold.

The story of this killing, interesting in itself as one of the few incidents of this nature that have come down to us in any detail of narration, takes on an added interest from the puerile and preposterous attempt to use it in attempted justification for the wanton and malevolent murder of Captain Huddy.

An Investigating Committee
A number of variant, and sometimes ridiculously extravant, tales have been told of this affair, but the true facts were ascertained at the time in a formal and semi-official inquiry conducted at the instance of General David Forman by a Committee, which was composed, I believe, of: John Covenhoven, Thomas Seabrook, Peter Forman, Richard Cox, Joseph Stillwell, Barnes Smock, John Schenck, Samuel Forman, William Willcocks, Asher Holmes, Elisha Walton, Stephen Fleming, John Smock, and Thomas Chadwick. The findings of this committee were submitted in form to Washington, for use in the attempt to bring Lippencott to condign punishment. They are said to have been in substantial accord with the following account, as published in the New Jersey Gazette, under Freehold date of April 15, 1782:

The Facts of the Case
"The circumstances attending the death of the above mentioned Philip White are as follows:

"On Saturday the 30th of March last, he was surprised by a party of our people, and after he had laid down his arms in token of surrendering himself a prisoner; he again took up his musket and killed a son of Colonel Hendrickson; he was however taken by our light horse, and, on his way from Colts-Neck to Freehold, where they were conducting him, he again attempted to make his escape from the guard, who called upon him several times to surrender, but he continued running, although often crossed and recrossed by the light horse, and desired to stop and finally, when leaping into a bog, impassable by the horse, he received a stroke in the head with a sword, which killed him instantly. The above facts have not only been proved by the affidavits of our friends who were present, but by the voluntary and candid testimony of one Aaron White, who was taken prisoner with the said Philip."

A Traditional Account
Some sixty years later a representative of Barber and Howe visited our county for the purpose of obtaining material for their Historical Collection. He thus writes of this case:

"The following circumstances, relating to the death of White, were obtained principally by conversation with a highly respectable gentleman, a soldier of the revolution, now (June 1842) a resident of this township. White, the refugee, was a carpenter, and served his time in Shrewsbury. Six days after Huddy was taken, he was surprised by a party of militia highthorse, near Snag swamp, in the eastern part of the township. After laying down his arms in token of surrender, he took up his musket and killed a Mr. Hendrickson. He was, however, secured and while being taken to Freehold was killed at Pyle's Corner, 3 miles from there. He was under guard of three men, the father of one of whom was murdered at Shrewsbury, the year previous, by a band of refugees, among whom was White, and he was therefore highly exasperated against the prisoner. Some accounts state, that he was killed while attempting to escape; others, with more probability, that they pricked him with their swords, and thus forcing him to run, cruelly murdered him."

The Crowing Infamy
At sunset of the day that had seen Toms-River fed to the flames, March 24th, the little British flotilla fared forth from Cranberry-Inlet, in the face of a raw and biting wind, on their return to New York, which they reached on the following day. With them went, perforce, Captain Joshua Huddy and the others of their prisoners.

Upon reaching the city, these were thrown into the notorious and infamous Sugar-House prison. Thence, on April 1st, they were removed to the Provost-Guard prison, under the administration of Cunningham, the monster. Huddy was kept constantly ironed -- both hand and foot. All were subjected to the brutalities and special privations at that time meted out to those who stood within the shadow of the gallows.

Sent Down To Sandy-Hook
A week later, April 8, Captain Richard Lippencott, who had been a neighbor of Huddy in Shrewsbury township, and who undoubtedly entertained against him some ancient grudge, removed the three prisoners, Huddy, Randolph, and Fleming, to the hold of a sloop and proceeded down the Bay to Sandy-Hook. He acted under the pretended authority of the "Board of Associated Loyalists."

A Job's Comforter
While thus held in fettered durance, the hold of the sloop in which he lay not being sufficiently deep to permit a man to stand upright, one of Monmouth's refugees, John Tilton, approached Huddy "and informed him that 'he was ordered to be handed.'"

"Capt. Huddy asked, 'what charge was alleged against him?'"

"Tilton replied, 'that he had taken a certain Philip White, a refugee, six miles up in the country, cut off both his arms, broke both his legs, pulled out one of his eyes, and then damned him and bid him run.'"

"To this Huddy answered, 'It is impossible that I could have taken Philip White, I being a prisoner closely confined in New York at the time and for many days before he was made a prisoner.'"

"Justice Randolph confirmed what Huddy had said, and answered Tilton that he could not possible (sic.) be charged with White's death; upon which Tilton told Mr. Randolph that 'He should be hanged next.'"

The Prisoners Transshipped
From the sloop, Huddy and the other prisoners were transferred to the war-ship "Britannia," Captain Morris, where they were confined in the calaboose, somewhat more comfortably, until the ominous morning of Friday the Thirteenth.

On that fateful morning some civilian strangers (presumably members of the Tory Board) presented themselves to Huddy and told him to, "Prepare to be hanged immediately."

"He again said, 'He was not guilty of having killed White' and that, 'He should die an innocent man, and in a good cause.'"

"With the most uncommon fortitude and composure of mind, he prepared for his end, and with the spirit of a true son of libery, he waited for the moment of his fate, which me met with a degree of firmness and serenity, which struck the coward hearts of his executioners with admiration."

Huddy Handed Over To Lippencott
Immediately after this, Captain Morris, of the "Britannia," on the demand of Lippencott, delivered up Huddy to the tender mercies of his arch-enemy. The hapless prisoner was hurried on a large pinnace, rowed by six sailors, and carrying a guard of sixteen Loyalists, which at once set off for Gravelly Point, "at landing was made.

The Last Will
Preparations for the execution were immediately set on foot. While the renegades were engaged in erecting "on the beach, close to the sea," a make-shift gallows of fence-rails, thrust deep into the sand, Huddy was permitted to write his own will. This was accomplished on the top of the barrel from which he was to be swung off into eternity. The document itself (said to be in the possession of the New Jersey Historical Society) was written calmly, and was "in a hand-writing fairer than usual."

The Execution
"Tradition states that Capt. Lippencott, observing reluctance in some of his men to take hold of the rope, drew his sword, and swore he would run the first through who disobeyed his orders. Three of the party, bringing their bayonets to the charge, declared their determination to defend themselved -- that Huddy was innocent of the death of White, and they would not be concerned in the death of an innocent man."

Another tradition, according to Mr. Wm. H. Fischer, 'says that Huddy shook hands with Lippencott, just as he stepped up on the barrel, saying, 'I shall die innocent, and in a good cause.'"

"Lippencott's men were loath to pull the rope on Huddy; so cursing them, Lippencott seized the rope himself, and as others joined in, launched Huddy off into eternity."

"Another story says that a black slave who had fled to the British lines, was Huddy's executioner."

Aftermath
At four o'clock that afternoon some of our people came upon the dangling body of the valorous Huddy, swinging slowly in the wind. Affixed to the breast was the following placard:

"We the refugees having with grief long beheld the cruel murders of our brethren and finding nothing but such measures daily carrying into execution,

We therefore determine not to suffer without taking vengeance for the numerous cruelties, and thus began (and I say may those lose their liberty who do not follow on) and have made use of Capt. Huddy as the first object to present to your views, and further determine to hang man for man as long as a refugee is left existing, 'Up goes Huddy for Philip White.'"

Huddy's body was taken to Freehold where the funeral was held on the 15th. The sermon was preached by the Reverend Mr. Woodhull.

Interment, with all the honors of war, was in the churchyard of Old Tennent. The exact emplacement of the grave is no longer known, no cenotaph keeps alive the memory of this brave man.

The Finale
And so, in ancient acre of God, brave Huddy sleeps -- in honored memory, Lippencott, banned and banished, died where Toronto now sits in queenly pride, no son to him succeeding. He left to an only daughter a sullied fame, a name forever infamous.

Lippencott and Huddy had been friends in youth. They were neighbors. Something of moment had come between them, for it cannot be reasonably doubted that Lippencott did his foe to death in satisfaction of the hoarded venom of private hatred rather than in display of rancorous party malevolence. They fought on opposite sides of a seven-year struggle. Lippencott killed Huddy, and apparently victor, walked away erect -- under a load of infamy that would have bowed a giant.

"Am I my brother's keeper?" was asked of old. The answer is the same -- forever.

On a day certain, Joshua Huddy and Richard Lippencott will meet again, face to face -- the day of the Great Assize.

Introduction and Preface-Hornor - useful advice in reading chronicled history
Letter from Washington regarding Huddy murder
Go to Directory of Historical Material

 

James Fenimore Cooper

From Xroads Virginia

James Fenimore Cooper was born on September 15, 1789 in Burlington, New Jersey, the eleventh of twelve children. When he was one year old, he moved with parents William and Elizabeth to Cooperstown on Ostego Lake in central New York. During Cooper's boyhood, there were few backwoods settlers left and even fewer Indians. However, Cooper's early experiences in this frontier town gave him the background knowledge used in the Pioneers (1923).

After boarding school in Albany, Cooper attended Yale College from 1803 - 1805 but was expelled. Apparently his expulsion stemmed from a dangerous prank that involved him blowing up another student's door. There Cooper acquired his lifelong distaste for New Englanders. In 1806, he became a sailor and then a midshipman in the Navy. At twenty, he inherited a fortune from his father and married Susan Augusta De Lancey, the daughter of a wealthy family that had remained Loyalist during the Revolution. Cooper married De Lancey New Years Day, 1811 and for two years he led the life of a country gentleman. When all five of his older brothers died, leaving widows and children behind, Fenimore began searching for work and wealth.

In 1820, Cooper's wife bet him that he could write a book better than the one she was reading. What followed was Precaution (1820) a novel of morals and manners that showed the influence of Jane Austen. With a pleasant enough reception, he published The Spy: A Tale of Neutral Ground (1821) the first historical romance about the American Revolution. Then, on its success, Fenimore moved to New York City to pursue writing as a career.

While in New York, he founded the Bread and Cheese Club and became the center of a circle that included notable painters of the Hudson River School as well as writers like William Cullen Bryant. In 1823, Cooper published The Pioneers which eventually consisted of five books about Natty Bumppo called The Leatherstocking Tales. With this, he created what can be critically viewed as the first American novel and hero. He also brought up the thematical complexities of natural right versus legal right, order versus change, and wilderness versus civilization which still fill the pages of American writing today.

In 1826, at the height of his popularity, he sailed for Europe for what became a seven year stay. He wrote The Prairie (1827) and Notions of the Americans (1828) a defense of the United States against the attacks of European travelers. Under the half-patronizing epithet of "the American Scott" he wrote three historical novels that mimicked the writing of Sir Walter Scott. Returning to the US in 1833, Cooper was so hurt by a review that he penned A Letter to his Countrymen (1834) which was a bitter attack on American provincialism. He also became involved in disputes in Cooperstown where he was attacked by newspapers as a false aristocrat poisoned by European influences. In response, Cooper immersed himself in law suits aimed at gaining damages that would tame the irresponsibility of the press. Cooper established the principle that reviewers must work within the bounds of truth when they deal with an author rather than the book.

Even with this scandal at his heels, Cooper continued to write a school primer, The American Democrat (1838) and three more Leatherstocking Tales: The Last of the Mohicans (1826), The Pathfinder (1840), and The Deerslayer (1841). Then came Cooper's obsession with the sea from his previous experience in the Navy. He penned The History of the Navy of the United States of America (1839), The Cruise of Sommers (1844), and The Distinguished American Naval Officers (1846).

At the time of his death on September 14, 1851, Cooper was more successful and respected abroad than at home. Out of step with his countrymen, his work was very influential to European writers like Honore de Balzac and Leo Tolstoy. Yet, the weaknesses of Fenimore's fiction are quite well known and wide-spread. Mark Twain tore apart Fenimore's romanticism in Fenimore Coopers Literary Offenses (1895). Clearly, Fenimore's tone was criticized as being reactionary, romantic, and pedagogical in tone. However, Cooper did contribute a great deal to the genre of American fiction. In the grand enterprise, even today, everyone has read books and seen films that are directly and indirectly affected by Cooper's conception of Natty Bumppo and his creation of the American novel.

 

Granville Perkins

Granville Perkins (1830-1895)
www.vallejogallery.com

Born in Baltimore, Maryland, American artist and illustrator Granville Perkins honed his artistic skills studying in Philadelphia with James Hamilton. Mastering both oil and watercolor techniques, Perkins traveled the east coast extensively and created scenes in his native Baltimore as well as New York, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Florida and Cuba.

A member of the American Watercolor Society, Perkins exhibited both his oils and watercolors frequently at the National Academy between 1862 and 1889. He also exhibited at the Pennsylvania Academy in 1856. In the 1860's Perkins moved to New York where he became a popular illustrator for many of the important publications of the day, including Harper's and Leslie's Illustrated News.

Devoting his life to scene painting and illustration, Perkins created views of everyday events and surroundings that have become popular for capturing the authentic flavor of the time in which he lived. Granville Perkins painted until his death in New York City at the age of 65.